The Classical School Of Criminology - 1174 Words

During the Enlightenment period, Cesare Beccaria developed the Classical School of Criminology with help from philosopher Jeremy Bentham. With the similar philosophies of Beccaria and Bentham, the classical theory of criminology was then developed, creating a strict and proportional criminal justice system. Deriving from the Rational Choice Theory, the classical theory of criminology states that rational behavior can be controlled in order to deter criminal activity. This idea comes from the thought that humans have free will when making decisions, and often use the practice of hedonistic calculus when weighing out these decisions. Hedonistic calculus refers to when one believes that the benefit of committing an act outweigh the punishment, they will commit that act. On the contrary, if one believes the punishment outweighs the benefits they would receive, they will not commit the act. With the use of the Rational Choice Theory as well as hedonistic calculus, Beccaria and Bentham bot h recognized that if a crime was accompanied by a swift and certain punishment proportional to that specific crime, this would prevent offenders from committing that act. Relying on punishment for deterrence, not retribution, Beccaria and Bentham believed that crime could be prevented if the could-be criminal believed the punishment for the crime in mind outweighs the personal benefits they could have gained. Beccaria states that there are three main crimes: those that run contrary to socialShow MoreRelatedThe Classical School Of Criminology996 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Classical School of Criminology was established. The Classical School of Criminology was founded by Cesare de Baccaria and Jeremy Bentham. The Classical School of Criminology has played a very important role in implementing changes to the criminal punishment system. One of the most significant features of the Classical School of Criminology is its stress on the person as a human being who is competent enough to calculate whether or not they will commit a crime (Lilly, 2011). The Classical SchoolRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology935 Words   |  4 Pagesprinciples of the Classical School of Criminology? The major principles in the Classical School of Criminology are that humans are rational and that our behavior comes from free will, and our human behavior is derived from pain and pleasure. To deter criminal’s punishment is necessary, which may set an example for others. As well as crime prevention should be implemented with quick regulated punishment for violations of the law. What were some forerunners of classical thought in criminology? Some forerunnersRead MoreClassical School Of Criminology2140 Words   |  9 PagesSome of the most important and influential thinkers of the Classical School of criminology, begin with John Locke. John Locke was among the most famous philosophers and political theorists of the 17th century. He is often regarded as the founder of a school of thought known as , and he made foundational contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government. He was also influential in the areas of theology and religious toleration. According to Schmalleger (2012), Locke stressed the dutiesRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology1216 Words   |  5 Pagesfamous schools of that are Classical Theory and Biological/Positivist Theory. These theories contain insights to why people commit crimes and the most effective way to deal with these individuals and eventually reduce the crime rate. This paper will discuss how these schoo ls of thought compare to each other, the Christian Worldview and to United States current criminal justice system. The first step to compare these theories is to better understand them. The Classical School of Criminology â€Å"refersRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology1485 Words   |  6 Pages1. Answer the following with respect to classical school of criminology: A. Discuss the historical context of the origins (emergence) of this perspective.   When did it arise?   Was it a response to any previous perspectives? The classical school of criminology is foundationally based upon the history of crime and punishment. Throughout history, crime was dealt with in an extremely harsh and inhumane manner. Criminals and suspected criminals were quartered, burnt at the stake, tortured, and subjectedRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology1327 Words   |  6 Pagesfamous schools of thought are Classical Theory and Biological/Positivist Theory. These theories contain insights into why people commit crimes and the most effective way to deal with these individuals and eventually reduce the crime rate. This paper will discuss how these schools of thought compare to each other, the Christian Worldview and to United States current criminal justice system. The first step to compare these theories is to develop an understanding of them. The Classical School of CriminologyRead MoreThe Classical School Of Criminology776 Words   |  4 PagesCh3 q1. The major principles in the classical school of criminology include as a being, one makes fundamentally sane decisions, and those decisions come from liberated will that is accompanied with coherent choosing. Another standard is painfulness and happiness, which are used as determining factors of human conduct. As a deterrent, violations of the law set the standard for the rest of society to abide by. Ones principles of acceptance and non-acceptance are inherent in our lives, in which it cannotRead MoreClassical And Positive Schools Of Criminology875 Words   |  4 PagesThere are several theories of crime that originated from both classical and positive schools of criminology. The various crimes that occur within society have shifted the manner of how Americans live their lives. According t o Lilly (1989) the various changes within American society has become a dominant feature of American life and a persuasive warning that the social fabrics of urban slums brew crime. Robert E Park, a newspaper reporter of the 1930’s according to Lilly et al (1989) concluded thatRead MoreClassical and Positive School of Criminology Essay1020 Words   |  5 PagesThe Classical School of Criminology and the Positive School of Criminology are two of the main theories that try and explain the behavior of delinquents. The Classical School of Criminology was developed in the late 1700s by Cesare Beccaria. Classical theorists were trying to decrease punishment and obtain equal justice for all. According to Beccaria and Jeremy Bantham, and English philospther, human nature is characterized by three central features: 1) People are not bound by original sinRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of The Classical School Of Criminology791 Words   |  4 PagesThe Classical school of criminology can be known as the free will to act at one’s own discretion, where an individual chooses to break the law upon a desirable choice. The Classical emphasizes how the system was organized, punishments for crime, and how authorities should react to crime. On the other hand, positivist school was created to see what influences an individual to break the laws, based on human beings’ behavior. Positivist school is simply trying to analyze who, what, and how crime is

Hiv And Aids Aids - 2422 Words

HIV AND AIDS It is hard to think of a place that HIV and AIDS is more drastic in Africa than in the Sub-Saharan part of Africa. Whereas, you hear that HIV AND AIDS is common in low and middle income countries and Sub-Saharan Africa in one of them. Uganda and South Africa is recognized for having the largest population of people living with HIV and AIDS. Most project, conference or debaters have visualized that the reasons for the widespread of HIV and AIDS is sexual transmission and infection. Most people do not realize that the increase in the widespread of HIV and AIDS in the Sub-Saharan Africa is lack of awareness, lean on cultural and religious belief, dissension of scientific community, and deprivation of political responsibility. Making a perception of a disease reduces the widespread of the disease or create awareness on solution to solve the diseases. In South Africa, the awareness of HIV and AIDS is very low as half of the population do not have a clear view on the causes of HIV and AIDS and other means of prevention. They do not have a knowledge of what HIV or AIDS is, why it happens, how it happens and how it can be prevented which can lead to more widespread. In South Africa, HIV was viewed as a curse or even an act of punishment. The South African denied creating awareness for AIDS because of the power of knowledge compared to power based in politics, not wanting their political governance to be overruled by the knowledge of the western world.Show MoreRelatedHiv / Aids And Aids1472 Words   |  6 PagesHIV/AIDS is the major ongoing issue attacking sub-Saharan Africa. The damage caused by HIV/AIDS strips families, communities, and increases poverty. In Kenya, the plague has mainly targeted those in the fertile and reproductive age groups. According to estimates by the United Nations of AIDS (UNAIDS), â€Å"Indication of 22.5 million people were living with HIV in Africa, over 1.6 million people were estimated to have died from this syndrome, and well over 11 million children have been orphaned by AIDSRead MoreAids : Hiv / Aids Essay1330 Words   |  6 PagesLauren Kennedy United States HIV/AIDS Part 1: Background of Topic: What became later known as aids was detected in West Africa when scientists identified a species of chimpanzees that had a version of this virus in their immune system. They later found out that the disease was transmitted to humans and created into HIV when people hunted these animals for food and came in contact with their infected blood. Decade after decade this illness swooped over Africa like a blanket and began to spread toRead MoreHiv/Aids Essay1086 Words   |  5 PagesHIV/AIDS BSHS302 May 21, 2012 Faye Flanagan HIV/AIDS Social issues facing HIV/AIDS today are as diverse as the people that are affected by the disease. Advocating for a large group of people takes action at the macro human service practice. The goals and intervention strategies will be similar to micro human service and will involve the same strategies to bring justice to human rights for all members of society. One strategy is including a broader range of other diversity in research inRead MoreThe Epidemic Of Hiv And Aids1535 Words   |  7 Pagespopulation include providing access to health care, HIV testing and syringe services programs. The Office of HIV Planning in Philadelphia focuses on the needs of the population, conducts community outreaches and educational sessions. As previously stated, 32 state Medicaid programs reimburse for routine HIV screening of adults aged 15-65 years, regardless of risk. This policy allows for individuals to more likely participate in this screening process. HIV testing can be done through health care professionalsRead MoreThe Effects of Hiv/Aids2132 Words   |  9 Pages | QUESTION: Discuss the impact of HIV/AIDS on education. CONTENTS 1.) Introduction. 2.) Discussion. i.)   loss of professionals to the effects of HIV and AIDS ii)   Funds channeled to combat effects of HIV and AIDS on education in Kenya iii) High dropout rates to the effects of HIV and AIDS on education iv) The introduction of HIV and AIDS as a unit on the Kenyan syllabus v)  Ã‚   Stigmatizations caused by the effects of HIV and AIDS on education in Kenya 3.) Conclusion Read MorePrevalence Of Hiv / Aids1525 Words   |  7 PagesPrevalence of HIV/AIDS in Ohio It was already stated that the HIV/AIDS epidemic impacts persons regardless of sex, age, race/ethnic group and/or geographic region in Ohio, but certain populations seem to be more impacted than others. There are 11, 544,225 people living in Ohio. 80% are white, 12% are black, 3% are Hispanic, and less than 2% are Asian. Each year in Ohio, about 1,000 people are diagnosed with HIV. In 2013, 1,180 people were diagnosed. Overall, there are almost 20,000 known to be livingRead MoreStigma of Hiv/Aids1812 Words   |  8 PagesStigma of HIV/AIDS It goes without saying that HIV and AIDS are as much about social phenomena as they are about biological and medical concerns. From the moment scientists identified HIV and AIDS, social responses of fear, denial, stigma, and discrimination have accompanied the epidemic. Discrimination has spread rapidly, fuelling anxiety and prejudice against the groups most commonly affected, as well as those living with HIV or AIDS. One of the main reasons for this is the lack of educationRead MoreHiv/Aids in Nigeria6960 Words   |  28 PagesLITERATURE 2.0 INTRODUCTION HIV/AIDs has been ranked among the common disease of all times that is threatening us with the extinction of youths and adults. It is not only terrorizing the entire generation but also kills and leaves millions of orphans for the oldest grandparent to carter for. 2.1 HIV/AIDS IN NIGERIA According to USAID brief (2004), Nigerian epidemic is characterized by one of the most rapidly increasing rates of new HIV/AIDS cases in West Africa. Adult HIV prevalence increased fromRead More AIDS/HIV Essay2283 Words   |  10 PagesHuman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), can be transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing contaminated needles and syringes, mother to child (perinatal) and contaminated blood product (National Association of Health Authorities, 1988). 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH Late HIV diagnosis remains a major problem among black Africans in England. In 2007, about 42 per cent of black Africans diagnosed with HIV were diagnosed late (HPA, 2008a). This compromises their survival chances becauseRead MoreAids : Hiv And The Pursuit Of Happiness1366 Words   |  6 PagesThe AIDS epidemic has been a controversial debate for many years. As Sturken says in her text, there is discourse on AIDS of hysteria and blame, but AIDS also produces a discourse of defiance and criticism (Sturken 147). Using Sturken’s article AIDS and The Politics of Representation and the film Living Proof: HIV and the Pursuit of Happiness I will discuss the two different discourses and views of AIDS. These simultaneous discourses on AIDS, result from the variation of ways people in our society

Advertising Ethics a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory Free Essays

string(209) " aside from greater semitivities to the environment and greater emphasis on a number of socially responsible actions, businesses, for the most part, still face ethical issues that were prevalent in the 1960s\." Advertising Ethics: A Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory Cornelius B. Pratt E. LincolnJames ABSTRACT. We will write a custom essay sample on Advertising Ethics: a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now F. P. Bishop argues that the ethical standard for advertising practitioners nmst be utilitarian. Indeed, the utilitarian theory of ethics in decision-making has traditionally been the preference of U. S. advertisingpractitioners. This article, therefore, argues that the U. S. advertising industry’s de-emphasisof ;ontological ethics is a reason for its continuing struggle with unfavorable public perceptions of its ethics – and credibility. The perceptions of four scenarios on advertisingethics and the analyses of the openended responses of 174 members of the American Advertising Federation to those scenarios suggest that advertising practitioners need a stricter adherence to deontological ethics than is indicated in this study. Advertising, a traditionally high-profile management function since World War II, perpetuates a paradox. On the one hand, it is commonly touted by business and the academy as a major economic, social and competitive force in post-world war economies. On the other hand, it is, invariably, a bull’s-eye for public wrath. Cowton (1992), Crisp (1987), and Litttechild (1982), for example, present evidence on consumer suspicion and antipathy toward and investor concerns about advertising Cornelius B. Pratt is Associate Professor in the Department of Advertising, at Michigan State University. His research has been published in suchjournals as the Journal of Media Planning, Journal of Business Ethics, Public Relations Review, Public RelationsJournal, Public Relations Quarterly, and Journalism Quarterly. E. LincolnJames is Associate Professorand Assistant Chairperson in tke Department of Advertising at Michigan State University. His work has appeared in several scholarlyjournals, including the International Journal of Advertising,Journal of Advertising, Journal of Direct Marketing, Journal of Media Planning, and Weberforschung und Praxis. ethics. Such antipathy and concerns have a considerable history, having begun earlier in this century (Rogers, 1990). Since a national meeting of the Advertising Federation of America in March 1942, during which it created a 39-point code of ethics for advertising during World War II (The New York Times, 1942), U. S. ublics and regulatory agencies and businesses worldwide have had a consuming interest in ethics. In his widely acclaimed book, The Ethics of Advertising, Bishop (t949) argues that the ethicai standards of advertising should â€Å"meet the practical requirements of society at a given stage of development† (p. 88). Thus he suggests utilitarian, relativistic, not rigid, standards of ethics for the ad industry. In Nevett’s (1985) rebuttal to Bishop’s (1949) argument, he concluded: â€Å"The ethical case for advertising stands in need of rigorous re-examination† (p. 04). The industry is not oblivious to such a need; existing programs are being revamped and others are being developed to respond to ethical issues. Indeed, selfregulation for socially responsible conduct has become an attractive option of industry associations as advertising practitioners report that their activities conform to the principles of business conduct, adopted March 2, 1984, by the Board of Directors of the American Advertising Federation (,~a~F)(Chonko et al. , 1987). This article re-examines advertising ethics and argues that the perfunctory adherence of the advertising industry to deontotogical ethics results in a public perception of the industry as more susceptible, on the average, to ethical dilemmas than are most other management functions. So pervasive is this perception that Bergerson (1991-1992), chairman of the Self-Regulation Committee of the AAF, criticized industry efforts that were largely directed at treating the symptoms of the problem rather than Journal of Business Ethics 13: 455–468, 1994.  © 1994 KluwerAcademic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 456 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Greyser and Reece’s (1971) update of the 1962 HBR study (Greyser, 1962) indicated that while business leaders had a continuing strong respect for the economic role of advertising, advertising standards had slipped in some areas from standards reported in 1962; and, advertising content, particularly its perceived truthfulness, drew major criticisms. More recent research underscores a rising tide of questionable practices and ethical problems among advertising practitioners (Carson et al. 1985; Hunt and Chonko, 1987; Nevett, 1985; Ossip, 1985; Rotzoll and Christians, 1980; Haefner, 1991). Consequently, Bergerson (1991–1992), for example, observes cynicism and indifference among the public toward advertising: â€Å"If the legislators, regulators and the public perceived advertisers to be more committed to legal and high ethical standards, their level of trust wilt rise and their level of unwelcome attention will fall† (p. 22). the problem itself. â€Å"Everyone in the industry should be interested in being a part of the solution,† Bergerson (1991-1992) wrote. The solution is to restore and maintain advertising’s credibility† (p. 22). Purposes of study The purposes of this study are twofold. First, it examines AAF members’ perceptions of four scenarios on advertising ethics, and analyzes their reasons for perceiving such scenarios as they did. Because members of the AAF — the largest association of advertising practitioners in the United States – operate in the trenches of the U. S. advertising industry, their perce ptions could be typical of those in the industry. Based on their comments, the present study argues that deontological ethics be applied more readily to decision-making than is currently the case. Second, this study links practitioners’ perceptions to ethical theories. Such a linkage is important because â€Å"(ethical) theories are like windows onto the world of moral reasoning. They are meant to provide vantage points from which important ethical decisions can be considered† (Lambeth, 1986, p. 25). The results of this study are, therefore, presented within the specific framework of classical theory: deontology. Theoretical framework: The classical ethical theory ofdeontology Advertising practitioners continually explore ethical systems that will guide their decision-making processes. Lambeth (1986) observes that such a â€Å"system of ethics cannot ignore the classical approaches of deontology and teleology, or the variants of them† (p. 28), and identifies the characteristics of such a system: A system of ethics must be flexible,but not so flexibleas to be a mere rationalization for the personal preferences of those who invoke it. In short, a systemmust have bite and give direction. Its precepts should offer continuity and stability, though not necessarilyinvariant outcomes. Rationale for study The growing literature on the morality of business practices indicates that, aside from greater semitivities to the environment and greater emphasis on a number of socially responsible actions, businesses, for the most part, still face ethical issues that were prevalent in the 1960s. You read "Advertising Ethics: a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory" in category "Papers" The advertising profession, as business, is no less immune to the unsavory public perceptions of business ethics in general. Almost 30 years ago, while a Harvard Business Review (HBR ) survey of business leaders indicated great respect for and an improvement in the standards of advertising during 10 previous years, there was a greater tendency on the part of the leaders to think that a code of ethical pracnces was more desirable for advertising than it was for their own industries (Greyser, 1962). (p. 28) Kantian ethics, a time-honored classical ethical theory, provides the framework for discussing the implications of self-reported ethics for the advertising industry. Deontology is a duty-based, nonconsequentialist theory of ethics that asserts that certain, human actions are inherently† right or wrong. (Eighteenth-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) provided much of the moral reasoning for pure deontology. ) The emphasis is on the doer’s actions. For example, it is always wrong to steal, lie or break a promise; it is one’s moral duty to Advertising and ClassicalEtflical Theory tell the truth and to keep one’s promises – regardless of the consequences. Universalizing an action is one criterion offered by Kant for determining the ethics of a decision or action. Does the decision, action, or advertising message treat people as ends or as means toward an end? Kantian ethics requires that the doer respect the rights, status and dignity of the people with whom she or he interacts. Deontology has a unique appeal to and major implications for the ethics of advertising practitioners. Consequently, the continuing search for clear-cut do’s and don’ts is a major focus of a number of advertising departments, agencies, and associations. One worldwide approach to such a search is the adoption of an ethics code whose imperatives, with a deontological bent, require, for example, that â€Å"we will not knowingly create advertisement that contains false or misleading statement or exaggerations, visual or verbal† (American Association, 1990). Such self-regulation by codes of ethics is, therefore, one far-reaching measure the advertising industry has taken to address the everyday ethical questions that it confronts. Such a strategy contradicts Ekehind and Saurman’s (1988) argument that such codes may not improve the professionalism of the practice. The rationale for such codes, argue advertising practitioners, is that the industry can distinguish right fi’om wrong. Beyond that, such self-regulation has the advantage of addressing headon some of the unfavorable public perceptions of advertising. The eight-item Advertising Principles of American Business, adopted March 2, 1984, by the American Advertising Federation Board of Directors, is replete with non-conditional, unequivocal â€Å"shalls† and â€Å"shall nots,† again, indicative of deontological requirements or proscriptions. Similarly, the Standards of Practice of the American Association of Advertising Agencies uses â€Å"musts† and â€Å"will nots† to disapprove unethical conduct among practitioners. These principles and standards satisfy both the principle of unity† and Kant’s categorical imperative and reject the notion of situational ethics (Briggs and Bernal, 1992). Thus, theoretically, the advertising practice embraces non-conditional ethical requirements. A number of professional associations that seek self-regulation of advertising in the United States have adopted a number of codes of conduct to 57 which practitioners are expected to adhere, emphasizing, in essence, the importance of deontological ethics. Research questions This study poses three research questions: a What are AAF members’ overall perceptions of advertising ethics as oudined in four scenarios on ethics? [] Do such perceptions vary significantly by the type of ethical issue confronted? a What ar e the implications of the classical theory† of deontology for the self-reported ethics of the sample practitioners? Method Questionnaire development A three-part questionnaire that had six statements on each of four potentially troublesome scenarios on moral issues was designed and pretested for clarity† and face validity on 20 respondents randomty selected from the relevant population. Responses to six statements on eachscenario were anchored on a four-point scale: 1 for â€Å"definitely yes,† 4 for â€Å"definitely no. † Respondents were requested 😠® comment briefly on their responses to the scenarios. The scenarios were developed by reviewing the standards of practice developed by three advertising associations: the 55,000-member AAF, the largest association of advertising professionals whose code of ethics was established in 1965; the American Association of Advertising Agencies, whose code was first adopted in 1924; and the National Advertising Division/ National Advertising Review Board, whose ethics code was created in 1971. The reviews identified issues of greatest ethical concern to the advertising industry. Additionally, the research literature on ethics in marketing and advertising was also examined for insights on formulating the scenarios. Hunt and Chonko (1987), for example, in extending an earlier study by Rotzoll and Christians (1980), identified six 458 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James Data collection major ethical problems from the responses of 269 advertising executives to an open-ended question: â€Å"Would you please briefly describe the aspect of advertising that poses the most difficult ethical or moral problem confronting you in your daily work? † (p. 19). Also, Wood et al. (1988) used 16 vignettes to examine the ethics of business students and business professionals. Similarly, Bellizzi and Hite (1989), DeConinck and Good (1989), Dubinsky et al. (1991), Fraedrich and Ferrell (1992), and Mason et al. (1990) used scenarios, vignettes and statements to assess respondents’ perceptions of ethics. Such hypothetical, ethics-related scenarios provide insights into business ethics, and have been found useful in replicating real-world situations for the purpose of evaluating moral conduct (DeConinck and Good, 1989; Dubinsky et al. 1991; Madden, 1989; Hegarty and Sims, 1979). A single-wave mail survey was used to collect data from the practitioner sample from the fall of 1991 through the winter of 1992. To encourage candid practitioner responses and to obtain an optimal response rate, a hand-typed, individually addressed covering letter, in which respondent’s anonymity was assured, accompanied each questionnaire. A business-reply e nvelope was in each piece of mail. Respondents were requested not to write any identifying information on the questionnaire. Results Pr@’le on respondents Sampling A systematic random sampling procedure was used to select names of AAF clubs and federations from the 1991 roster of the AAF. Following the receipt of notification that club participation in the survey had been approved, we mailed 2,010 copies of the questionnaire to executive directors or secretaries of clubs. Copies were distributed during general meetings of the clubs. Four hundred eighty-one of the 2,010 copies were returned in a single-wave mailing, yielding a 23. 9% response rate. Only 460 (22. 9%)were usable. This low response rate is consistent with those of similar studies (Akaah, 1990; Chonko et aI. 1987; Fritzsche and Becket, 1984; Greyser and Reece, 1971; Hunt et al. , 1984; Myers et al. , 1980; Randall and Gibson, 1990), which reported response rates between 17% and 31%. One hundred seventy-four respondents provided reasons for their responses to all four scenarios, for an item-response rate of 37. 8%. Because one purpose of this study is to analyze respondents’ r easons for their philosophical perceptions, the analyses of responses focus on those respondents who provided such comments. Table I presents a seven-item profile on the 174 respondents. The gender split was almost equal. About 4% of the respondents were 25 years or younger, 29% were between 26 and 34 years old and 34% between 35 and 43 years old. Eight percent and 5. 7% were in the 53-years-to-61-years and the 62years-or-older categories, respectively. Respondents represented each of 25 states in the United States. However, four states – California, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan – each had 10 or more open-ended responses. California, with 44 returns, had the most responses. More than one-half of the respondents had between one and 10 years of full-6me advertising experience, 26% between 11 and 20 years’ experience, and 11% between 21 and 30 years’ experience. About 1%had more than 40 years’ experience. With regard to respondents’ institutional affiliations, about 44% worked in an advertising agency or department, 17% in companies or corporations, 3. 4% in nonprofit organizations, and 32% in other organizations. About 35% of the respondents indicated that they were in top-management positions, for example, as owners, presidents, executive vice presidents, vice presidents, and directors. Twenty-six percent were categorized in upper-middle management positions: division heads, supervisors, managers. About 40% were categorized in lower-middle management positions, for example, as account executives, while 3%were categorized as non-management personnel. Advertising and Classical EtkicaI Theory TABLE I A demographic profile on respondents (N = 174), in percentages Gender Female Male States with 10 or more responses California Colorado Illinois Michigan 25. 3 6. 9 5. 7 10. 9 50. 6% 49. 4 459 While 24% of the respondents did not supervise any employees, a majority held supervisory positions. About 63% supervised between one and 10 eraployees, 7% between l l and 20, and about 3% more than 21 employees. Respondents’ evaluation of and conmaents o n scenarios Scenario No. h (Giving gifts to a potential client) This scenario focused on a female ad person who gave gifts to a potential client with the intent of receiving assistance from the client in obtaining the latter’s account. Slightly more than one-half of the respondents said that the ad person was wrong, t7% reported that she should be fired, 40% would do just what she did, while 56% said that most ad execs would do as she did. About 83% said their firms should address the situation formally in a policy. In this scenario, gift-giving perse was not an issue; however, the intent of that practice is important because one study (Hire and Beltizzi, 1987) indicated that gifts tend to obligate a client to a firm. Some respondents in the present study considered it a bribe. One, for example, wrote: â€Å"Any company I managed had a written policy on such matters. Mary would have been reprimanded orally and in writing. A copy would be placed in personnel file. This would contain a ‘warning. ‘ Next time, fired. † Another: â€Å"If it was an overt bribe it was wrong. If it was really a gift then no problem. A respondent who was blunt about the wrongness of the conduct defended its widespread occurrence in the industry: â€Å"What Mary did was wrong, but it is common practice in a more subtle way. † Perhaps reflecting the percentage of respondents who said that most ad executives would do what the ad person did, a number of respondents pointed out that the situation â €Å"happens quite frequently,† that it is â€Å"common practice,† that â€Å"‘gifts’ is a highly ambiguous term,† that it is â€Å"standard in the industry,† that most account executives â€Å"routinely give away whatever they can to get business,† and that â€Å"romancing the client is part of business. Therefore, they think that nor much is wrong with it. In fact, most argued that it depended on the nature of the gift. Age 25 or younger 26–34 35–43 44–52 53–61 62 or older Years in full-time advertising 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 More than 40 years Work Setting Advertising agency/department Public relations agency/department Non-profit organization Company/corporation Other Management position Top management Upper-middle management Lower-middle management Number of employeessupervised 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 5t or higher 24. 1 62. 7 6. 9 2. 9 1. 7 1. 1 0. 6 34. 5 25. 8 39. 7 43. 7% 3. 4 3. 4 17. 2 32. 2 6. 52. 3 25. 9 10. 9 2. 9 1. 1 4. 0 29. 3 33. 9 19. 0 8. 0 5. 7 460 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James TABLE lI Responses to statements on ethics scenarios % yesa Mean u SD Statements on Scenario No. 1 (Giving gifts to a potential client) 1. What Mary- did was wrong. 2. Mary should be fired. 3. I would do just what Mary did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what Mary† did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of mr† response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. Statements on Scenario No. 2 (Lying about an update on an account) 1. What John did was wrong. 2. John should be fired. 3. I would do just what John did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what John did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy-, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my finrddept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. Statements on Scenario No. 3 (Seeking confidential information) 1. What Pete did was wrong. 2. Pete should be fired. 3. I would dojffst what Pete did. . Most ad execs would do just what Pete did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. 63 18 40 47 22 2. 16 3. 35 2. 01 2. 43 3. 28 1. 14 0. 852 0. 961 0. 856 0. 917 59 18 57 78 24 2. 29 3. 43 2. 48 3. 00 3. 23 1. 05 55 17 40 56 31 2. 36 3. 40 2. 01 2. 62 2. 99 1. 18 0. 811 0. 982 0. 939 1. 15 83 1. 68 0. 918 0. 807 1. 03 0. 825 1,05 72 2. 04 1. 05 67 2. 12 1. 01 Advertising and Classical Ethical Theoly Table)8 (Continued) %yes ~ Statements on Scenario No. 4 (Using outdated data) Mean b 46 t SD What Sally did was wrong. Sallyshould be fired. I would do just what Sally did. Most ad execs would dojust what Sally did. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, that addresses this situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either writtm. ~or oral, that addresses the situation or practice. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 82 46 11 36 41 t . 62 2. 68 1. 51 2. 26 2. 84 0. 993 1. 07 0. 742 0. 9 t0 1. 12 81 1. 77 0. 39 a Percent responding â€Å"definitely yes† or â€Å"maybe yes. † b On a four-point scale, with 1 = â€Å"definitely yes† and 4 = â€Å"definitely no. † A lower mean score indicates a stronger agreement with a statement. Another, perhaps thinking situationally, asked: â€Å"Is it a pen, a ticket to a concert, or an automobile? † A president of an ad agency said: â€Å"Often, in this business, I encounter prospective clients that have been ‘wined and dined’ by their previous agency. Some expert preferential treatment. The prospects that find this offensive and rely mostly on our agency’s ethics, expertise and integrity are those we desire. This philosophy has lost us business, slowed our growth . . . . Business ethics unfortunately in the ad business is perceived next to snake oil salesmen! † was wrong substantiated their positions with the following reasons: â€Å"There definitely are times when one must prioritize his/her workload . . . One should not lie to the client but instead talk openly about a schedule of completion and possibly see ifa delay would be acceptable. † D,- â€Å"Schedules for each project~client are developed on approval of estimates. All work is to be done per that schedule, regardless of dollars involved. â€Å"A company should try to meet a ctienCs deadlines no matter the size o f the account. † O n the other hand, some of those who felt nothing wrong had occurred said: ‘[john did tell the t r u t h . . . For John to tell the whole truth is simply suicidal. Agencies are always juggling workloads. † m,- â€Å"What John said was not a definite lie. As long as you do not directly tie about a scenario, don’t worry. † m,- ‘[John did what most people would do, then work a little harder to get the other work OUt. † enario No. 2: (Lying about an update on an account) This scenario was on the failure o f an ad agency staffer to tell a client the truth about the status o f the client’s account, which had been set aside temporarily in preference for a newer, higher-hilling account. Fifty-nine percent said that the ad agency staffer was wrong, 18% said that he should be fired, 57% reported that they would do just what he did, while 78% said that most ad execs would do what the staff did. About 72% said their agencies should address the situation in a policy. Some of those who argued that the agency staff â€Å"I see no reason to forfeit future business and, 462 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James herefore, would use whatever means necessary to maintain the relationship. † did. Eighty-one percent said that their agencies should address situation in a policy. Respondents were clearly angered by the ad executive’s action. A respondent said: â€Å"This conduct is indefensible. The client paid for both the campaign and the research (I assume ) and is entitled to their results. † â€Å"There should be truth in advertising and in all of life’s encounters, business or personal. † Another: â€Å"Sally practiced deception in not using those current poll results. The client is bound to find out what sort of results the corporate image has, eventually. Yet another: â€Å"Bad judgment to cover up facts. Corrective measures to improve numbers in future campaigns should be provided to client. † Some arguments made in behalf of the ad executive: †¢ â€Å"They [the numbers] can be used as indicators, but not absolutes. How many people do you know that have participated in TV Nielsen rating surveys and how many programs have the networks cut or kept that you disagree with? † â€Å"What Sally did was not necessarily wrong or right, given the question. Possibly the campaign required more impact, time, etc. Too many variables in this situation to judge ethics. † â€Å"Numbers are arbitrar y and research is imperfect. One set of ‘bad’ numbers is, therefore, inconclusive. † enario No. 3: (Seeking confidential information) During a social meeting, one ad account executive craftily encouraged another obviously inebriated ad executive who handled the account for a competing brand to divulge confidential business information. Sixty-three percent said that the ad account executive was wrong. Eighteen percent said that he should be fired, and 40% that they would do just what he did, while 47% said that most ad execs would do what the executive did. Sixty-seven percent said the ad agency should address the situation through policy-making. Among all four scenarios, scenario No. 3 had the second-highest disapproval rate among respondents. One respondent made a blunt, succinct comment: â€Å"A definite breach of professional ethics. † Another: â€Å"This is unacceptable as well as unethical behavior. Once the account exec had identified himself, Pete should have identified himself as well. Pete should be reprimanded for his actions, maybe even fired if it appears as if this same scenario would continue in the future. † Another: â€Å"It was wrong not to identify himself. † Yet another: â€Å"Pete’s taking advantage of his ‘counterpart’ was opportunistic and immoral. A respondent who saw nothing devious here argued: â€Å"It is a very competitive market. Taking advantage of the competition’s weakness or stupidity is a must. † Another argument: â€Å"Corporate espionage is no more or less right or wrong than is political espionage. † †¢ †¢ Comparison of means Scenario No. 4: (Using outdated data) In an agency’s report to a client, a female ad executive used outdated data that were favorable to both her ad agency and client, while ignoring new, unfavorable information. Eighty-two percent – the highest among all scenarios for statement No. – said that the female ad executive was wrong, 46% said that she should be fired, 11% that they would do just what she did, while 36% said that most ad execs would do what she Two analytical procedures were used to compute and compare responses to all four scenarios. First, the percentage response to each statement was computed for comparison of the directions of response patterns. Second, item-by-item statistical differences between 36 possible pairs of responses across all four scenarios were determined. Schefft’s (1953) multiplecomparisons were used to determine such differences (Table III). Twenty-five of those 36 pairs and four of the six variable pairs of grand means were significantly different (p ;lt; 0. 05, at least) from each other, indicating respondents’ differentiation of their evaluation of the scenarios. Thus, this result indicates Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory TABLE III Comparison of means, grand means (and standard deviations’) for four scenarios on advertising ethics Scenario One 2. 3; (1. 18) 3. 4@ (0. 811) 2. 0P (0. 982) 2. 62~ (0. 939) 2. 99~ Scenario Two 2. 29~ (1. 05) 3. 4Y (0. 807) 2. 48b (1. 03) 3. 00b (0. 825) 3. 23b Scenario Three 2. 1; (1. 14) 3. 35~ (0. 852) 2. 0P (0. 61) 2. 43~ (0. 856) 3. 28b 463 Statement 1. What X did was wrong. 2. X should be fired. 3. I would do just what X did. 4. Most ad execs would do just what X did. 5. My firm/dept, has a policy, either written or oral, on situation or practice. 6. Regardless of my response to No. 5, it is a good idea for my firm/dept, to have a policy, either written or oral, on situation or practice. Grand Mean Scenario Four 1. 62b (0. 993) 2. 68b (1. 07) 1. 5V (0. 742) 2. 26d (0. 910) 2. 84~ (t. I 5) (1. 05) (0. 9! 7) (1. 12) 1. 68~ (0. 918) 2,63~ (0. 406) 2. 04b (1. 05) 2. 58~,b (0. 362) 2. 12b (1. 01) 2. 74c (0. 378) 1. 77~ (0. 39) 2. 52b (0. 401) ~,b. ~ Means with different superscripts on the same row are significantly† different, by ScheffS’s repeated-measures design. Note: Means are on a four-point scale, with 1 for â€Å"definitely yes† and 4 for â€Å"definitely no. † Statements 3 and 4 were reverse-coded as t for â€Å"definitely no† and 4 for â€Å"definitely yes. † A lower mean score, therefore, indicated higher self-reported ethical standards. that the sample practidoners’ perceptions of ethics vary significantly by the type o f ethical issue confronted, suggesting perceived differences in the intensity of the application of deontology to the scenarios. Fritzsche (1988) and Fritzsche and Becker (1984) reported similar differences across vignettes, and concluded that marketing managers practiced situational ethics. For three of the four scenarios, respondents tended to agree with the statement that the advertising staff involved in the conduct identified in each of the scenarios took the wrong action. However, they tended not to agree that the staff should be fired. It was only in scenario No. 4 (using outdated data) that members tended to perceive the conduct as wrong; even so, the mean response to the statement that the staff â€Å"should be fired† was 2. 8, which was significantly different (p lt; 0. 001) from re- spondents’ positions on the firing of the three other practitioners in the other three scenarios. Contextual response An overall evaluation of the respondents’ evaluation of the wrongness or rightness of a conduct – the essence of Kantian ethics – indicates that the sample AAF members l eave little doubt about their positions on the scenarios outlined in the questionnaire. However, when the evaluations of the statements, taken together, are considered within the context o f classical ethical theory, the members’ ethics leaves much to be desired. Four questionnaire statements (items 1, 2, 3 and 6 of Tables II and III) were used as direct measures of deontology: â€Å"was wrong,† â€Å"should be fired,† â€Å"I would 464 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James do,† and â€Å"regardless of my response. † It must be noted here that, even though deontology does not address explicitly the severity of the punishment for an ethical infraction, the theory is not neutral on punishment. Justice is one of the moral values that deontology considers – even though not always explicitly. In mixed-rule and mixed-act deontology, the consequences of one’s actions are considered. In essence, there is a built-in role for consequences. This was why Kant, admittedly vague in some areas, invented moral rules in the first place. Responses to the four deontology-related statements provide four indications of the extent of practitioners’ adherence to Kantian ethics. First, the respective percentages (28. 7%, 28%, 40% and 65%) of respondents who reported that the actions of the practitioners cited in the four scenarios were definitely wrong indicate that fewer than one-half applied deontological theory to three of the four scenarios. Second, that the practitioner should be fired, the ultimate test of ethics (Singer, 1992), had much lower, definite approval rates: 1. 7%, 1. 1%, 3. 4%, and 16. 1%. Third, the response percentages for item 3 (â€Å"I would do just†¦ â€Å") in scenarios one, two, and three indicate that a sizable number of respondents would engage in the questionable behavior outlined in the scenarios. For scenario four, however, 11% said that they would â€Å"definitely† or â€Å"maybe† engage in a behavior that 82% of them reported as wrong. Finally, on item 6, a clear majority indicated an interest in organizational response to the issue raised in each scenario. The response percentages for statements 1, 2, and 3, therefore, indicate that practitioners’ evaluations are clearly at odds with tile tenets of deontology and are perhaps more in line with utilitarian and relativistic theories. A further indication of the sample practitioners’ adherence to deontology is provided by those who responded â€Å"definitely yes† or â€Å"maybe yes† to all four measures of deontology in all four scenarios. The results: 10% 10%, 16%, 32% for scenarios 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Such low percentages suggest that a majority of members wavered in applying deontology to the ethical dilemmas with which they were confronted. Bishop (1949) argues that truthtelling (addressed in scenarios 2 and 4) in advertising is â€Å"impossible and the attempt to attain it would reduce advertising to complete ineffectiveness and prevent it from fulfilling its legitimate and necessary function† (to. 88). Yet, the first of AAF’s eight-principle code of ethics, albeit stated in general terms, focuses on truthtelting: â€Å"Advertising shall tell the truth, and shall reveal significant facts, the omission of which would mislead the public† (American Advertising Federation, 1984). While AAF members report that their companies adhere to AAF principles, they report that other ad agencies tend to adhere less strictly to those principles (Chonko et al. , 1987). Adherence to the truth principle is not only evident among AAF members but it has the largest â€Å"my† versus â€Å"other† company difference ([t – 23. 2, p lt; 0. 01] Chonko et al. , 1987). A number of U. S. corporate executives now realize that if ethical transgressions are not sanctioned by dismissals, they could encourage all kinds of shady dealings and foster the perception that the organization is not really committed to ethics (Singer, 1992). It is plausible that a mix of utilitarian, JudeoCh ristian, veil-of-ignorance, and golden-mean ethics simultaneously guided the sample practitioners’ evaluation of the ethical scenarios used in this stud),. However, the investigation of the application of various ethical theories to decision-making was not a purpose of this study. Empirical studies on ethics (e. g. , Ferrelt and Weaver, 1978; Fritzsche, 1988; Fritzsche and Becker, 1983; Krugman and Ferrell, 1981; Pratt, 1991; Pratt and McLaughlin, 1989) increasingly indicate that ethics among business people is frequently not perceived in absolutist terms, but in relative shades of right and wrong. Fritzsche (1991, 1988) and Jones (1991), for example, report that situational ethics is the overwhelming preference of U. S. managers. Advertising codes of ethics are usually written in precise deontological terms, for example, â€Å"must recognize,† â€Å"will not,† â€Å"shall tell the truth,† â€Å"shall refrain from. Yet, AAF members do not seem to abide by deontology even though â€Å"an enforced, effective code should provide the profession with a degree of stability and consistency in the ethical decision-making of its members† (Beets, 1991, p. 69). It is plausible that the patterns of responses in this present study suggest adher ence to utilitarian ethics, which is preferred by advertising agency personnel Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory (Rotzotl and Christians, 1980; Christians et al. , 199 I). On the other hand, utilitarian ethics seeks to maximize the good for all concerned. However, the limitation of this ethical theory is inherent in how the â€Å"good† is determined. Beyond that, the interests of the minority tend to be given short shrift. What, therefore, are the chances that advertising-agency actions will result in the â€Å"greatest happiness for the greatest number†? Also, Nevett (1985) disagrees with Bishop’s (1949) suggestion that the ethical standards of advertising be utilitarian because such an approach cannot â€Å"provide advertising people today with guidance on suitable ethical standards for their profession† (e. 04). Rawls (1971) criticizes utilitarianism, noting that it does not take seriously the differences among people; rather, it views as morally just that which has the sum of satisfactions (or total utility) for the community. As an alternative to utilitarian thought, Rawls (1971) suggests â€Å"a new moral theory† that will give adequate account to the primacy of justice, understood as the prote ction of the equal rights of all individuals, over the social good† (Schaefer, 1979, p. 22). To accomplish equal justice in society, therefore, everyone should assume a hypothetical â€Å"original position† – behind a â€Å"veil of ignorance† – which requires that, in evaluating situations, people step from their everyday, status-based traditional roles into an egalitarian position behind a veil. The goal is to develop a conception of justice or of the good from a disinterested, â€Å"equal† perspective. Would a recommendation that practitioners who compromise the ethical standards identified in the scenarios be fired be an illustration of such justice? And would such firing be in an organization’s or in a society’s best interest? Finally, it is plausible that Judeo-Christian morality – an altruistic, religion-based tradition – is also reflected in respondents’ evaluations of the dilemmas in the ethical scenarios. 465 perceived as â€Å"definitely† having such policies for each of the four scenarios (and those who â€Å"definitely† think that having such policies is a good idea) are, respectively, 17. 8 (56. 3), 11. 5 (38. 5), 4. 6 (33. 3) and 15. s (50 0). The large differences between having such policies and thinking that having such policies is a good idea lends credence to the continuing public and practitioner concern over advertising ethics. For advertising agencies, such policies could result in two possibilities: (1) they may encourage agencies to also apply deontology to ethical issues, and (2) they may help agencies initiate an eclectic approach to ethical decision-making – that is, to apply ethical principles that may involve bringing all five commonly used classical theories to bear simultaneously on the decision-making process. These five theories, which are not mutually exclusive, fall into one of two broad categories: deontology or teleology. They are (1) Aristotle’s golden mean (â€Å"moral virtue is appropriate location between two extremes†); (2) the theoretical framework for this present study, Kant’s categorical imperative (â€Å"act on that maxim which you will to become a universal law†); (3) Mill’s principle of utility (â€Å"seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number†); (4) Rawls’s (1971) veil of ignorance (â€Å"justice emerges when negotiating without social differentiations†); and (5) Judeo-Christian persons as ends (â€Å"love they neighbor as yourself†). Aristotle’s theory of the golden mean, a virtuebased ethics, strikes a moral balance between two extremes, one indicating excess, the other deficiency. The mean, in this context, is not a statistical mean but a willingness on the part of the decision maker to exercise moderation or temperance – a virtue. Such a mean rdates to the individual’s particular situation, her or his stay. is, strengths and weaknesses (Chi’istians et aI. , 1991). Utilitarian ethics, a form of teleological ethics, was enunciated by John Smart Mill as that which seeks â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greatest number. To assess the â€Å"greatest good,† a person or organization performs a cost-benefit analysis of an action or decision. If the latter would result in the good of the majority, that is, if its benefits for the â€Å"greatest number† outweigh its costs, then the act is ethically right. Rawls’s (197 t) veil of ignorance, a nonconsequen- Conclusion The results presented in this study indicate a strong (perceived) reluctance on the part of the ad agencies to institute policies, either written or oral, that would proscribe unethical conduct. The percentages of respondents whose firms or departments are 466 C. B. Pratt and E. L. James tialist theory of justice, governs the assignment of rights and duties and regulates the distribution of social and economic advantages. People, Rawts (197I) argued, â€Å"have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others† (Rawls, 1971, p. 60). Finally, Judeo-Christian morality is an altruistic tradition that is being popularized in the West as â€Å"the more dramauc term agape – unselfish, otherregarding care and other-directed love, distinct from friendship, charity, benevolence, and other weaker notions† (Christians et al. 1991, p. 20). The interpretation of the results of this present study within the context of Kantian ethics suggests that deontology is clearly not the preference of the sample practitioners. The de-emphasis of deontological ethics among practitioners is likely to engender a laissez faire approach to ethical issues. Dubinsky et al. (1991) suggest a reason for this phenomenon from an overall business perspective: â€Å"Many of the situations business people confront are in a ‘gray’ area where the delineation between the right versus the wrong action is not clear† (p. 52). On the other hand, strict deontologicaI ethics could encourage advertising practitioners to understand the precise boundaries of ethical and unethical conduct, as has been found among salespeople (Michaels et at. , 1988). It has been reported that managers who apply deontological ethics under uncertain conditions are least likely to change their decisions even when they perceive the risk of their decisions; those who apply utilitarian ethics are more likely to change their decisions to satisfy financial and/or self-esteem goals (Fraedrich and Ferrell, 1992). And herein lies a crucial value of deontological ethics to advertising: more likely, it will encourage advertisers to adhere to the precepts of ethics, setting aside personal financial and social rewards for the public good. At least 67% of the respondents in the present study suggested that their organizations establish policies on questionable conduct (item 6). Why did such a majority suggest such boundaries on behavior? Why would they prefer that formal company policies restrict questionable behaviors? It is plausible that the sample practitioners place much value on formal policies because of the perceived importance of affirmation on what they consider ethical or unethical. Further, such a formal process may indicate more than a perfunctory commitment of their organizations to ethics. This possibility suggests two key questions on the implications of the results of the present study for policy-making: (1) Where lies the responsibility for shaping advertising agency ethics? (2) And what relevant does deontology have for the training of advertising staffs? In a speech given two dozen years ago by Bill Marsteller, founder of the advertising agency, Marsteller Inc. (a forerunner of Burson-Marsteller, the world’s third-largest public relations agency), he said: â€Å"It is not enough [for the advertising student] to simply attain general standards of morality and taste; it is important to be subjected to the deliberate considerations of advertising morality and taste†¦ † (Marsteller, 1972, p. 241). Marsteller sees education in advertising ethics as important as that for the production of creative, charming advertising. Just as the effectiveness of training sessions has been called into question (Feldman and Thompson, 1990; Levin, 1989), their impact has also been demonstrated (e. g. , Feldman and Thompson, 1990; Hanson, 1987; Harris and Guffey, 1991). On balance, however, it behooves ad clubs and various advertising associations to establish programs that, at the minimum, sensitize practitioners to some of the social and professional sequelae of their ethics-related decisions. The results of this limited study justify the adoption of such measures. Caveats Two limitations of this stud), should be outlined. The first is the old issue of â€Å"self-reported† ethics. Even though measures were taken to discourage the use of socially desirable responses, that possibility cannot be ignored because perceptual distoruon is higher when the dependent variable is as highly sensitive as the subject of ethics (Hunt et al. , 1989; Randall and Fernandes, 1991). The second is the representativeness of the sample, which was drawn from 25 states, for the 50,000member AAF. Because the sample was not randomly selected, it is important that this present study be replicated on a larger, more geographically diverse sample to determine the extent to which its results are consistent with those of such a nationwide study. Advertising and Classical Ethical Theory How to cite Advertising Ethics: a Contextual Response Based on Classical Ethical Theory, Papers

Living the Past free essay sample

â€Å"There is no place like motherland†. I can go to beautiful France, elegant England or Prestigious Russia, but there is no other place in the world where I will enjoy being more than my motherland. What’s about my motherland that makes me eager to go back? Definition says that, a country is consisting of the people that live on that land. Does that means I crave for my people of my country’s company? I don’t know. All I know is that living in my country, Bangladesh was the highlight of my life. Don’t get me wrong, I love United States. I love the friendly people in U.S, who took me under their wings soon after I came here. I love my friends who make me laugh in the rainy days. Still, at times when I am alone in a room, left with nothing but my memory, I become nostalgic. We will write a custom essay sample on Living the Past or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I go back to the streets of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, where I grew up. I revisit the places in the city where I was frequent every day, for school or for regular needs. I walk to the roads where I had once walked, sing the same song in my head that I was singing last time, when I’ve been there. Its like memories are my friends, who I have left in the path, just to get them back again when I revisit. I don’t have to close my eyes to see the road side general stores that I would see on my way to school. I feel the same restlessness when our rickshaw would be stuck in traffic jam for an hour, making me let for my class. The smell of name unknown flowers would wrap me like a shawl the minute I would put my feet in the school boundary. I am even surprised to find out that I don’t even get sad when my teacher would criticize me for being late in class. I would try to relive those times when I helped the school librarian organize the books in the library in lun ch break and check out books to read. Every Wednesday I would run around like crazy just to make sure every one who signed up for the Reading club would get a new book. It was impossible to count how many times I had been called The Bookworm by my friends. At 12.30pm my school will end and I would wait for my mother to pick me up and buy me an ice cream. I can taste the creamy taste of the Bangladeshi ice creams I used to get from ice cream carts after school. No one can ever get bored in Bangladesh. Just in a 20 minutes journey way back home from school would prove it. Every minute there would be at least one car that will almost hit a rickshaw in process to get out of the way of an over speeding bus. Garments workers would come out of a garment factory in launch breaks. Launch break time looks like a river of people are going in different direction toward their homes to get their launch. I would always notice the sadness or tiredness in their faces after long time working. There would be happy faces, happy to get a break out of the work. Van-pullers would take a nap in the shade of tall buildings on their vans. I would get really upset about how our rickshaw puller would sweat from all the hard work. I remember, I asked my mom that why can’t they take some rest? And she answered that, they have a family to feed too. I wondered, why can’t I have enough money so I can give them all equal amount money so they didn’t ha ve to do all these hard work. It was a child’s wonder, but it still makes me laugh when ever I think about it. If the world would be that easy then this world would be a much less complicated place. I would go home do my homework and fall asleep with colorful dreams in my eyes, mostly are from scenes I have seen that day. I lived in Bangladesh as a child who goes to school. My life was all about going to the school to and coming back home. My childhood was colorful and ever exciting. I came to U.S three years now. I am more grown up now than I was three years ago, but a part of me stayed still in my fourteen years self, left in Bangladesh. Now whenever I think about those days my fourteen year old self comes in front of me and guides me through all the streets, all the paths and places from my childhood. I will grow older but part of me would never change. A piece of my heart will always search for ways to get back what I have left behind, my country.

William Shakespeare Essays (881 words) - Shakespearean Tragedies

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer's plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare's mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the daughter of a local farmer, she was related to a family of considerable wealth and social ezding. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare's were well respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was a exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon which ran through the town allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare's' poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare's other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare's career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city's repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their audience. Scholars know that Shakespeare belonged to one of the most popular acting companies in London called The Lord Chamberlain's Men. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group from 1594 for the rest of his career. By 1594, at least six of Shakespeare's plays had been produced. During Shakespeare's life, there were two monarchs who ruled England. They were Henry the eighth and Elizabeth the first. Both were impressed with Shakespeare which made his name known. There is evidence that he was a member of a traveling theater group, and a schoolmaster. In 1594, he became an actor and playwright for Lord Chamberlain's Men. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theater. He also was a part owner of the Blackfriars Theater as of 1609. Shakespeare retired to Stratford in 1613 where he wrote many of his excellent plays. There are many reasons as to why William Shakespeare is so famous. He is generally considered to be both the greatest dramatist the world has ever known as well as the finest poet who has written in the English language. Many reasons can be given for Shakespeare's enormous appeal. His fame basically is from his great underezding of human nature. He was able to find universal human qualities and put them in a dramatic situation creating characters that are timeless. Yet he had the ability to create characters that are highly individual human beings. Their struggles in life are universal. Sometimes they are successful and sometimes their lives are full of pain, suffering, and failure. In addition to his underezding and realistic view of human nature, Shakespeare had a vast knowledge of a variety of subjects. These subjects include music, law, Bible, stage, art, politics, history, hunting, and sports. Shakespeare had a tremendous influence on culture and literature throughout the world. He contributed greatly to the development of the English language. Many words and phrases from Shakespeare's plays and poems have become part of our

Macro Marketing Environment and the Sa Airline Industry Essays

Macro Marketing Environment and the Sa Airline Industry Essays Macro Marketing Environment and the Sa Airline Industry Paper Macro Marketing Environment and the Sa Airline Industry Paper There is a positive outlook on the Airline Industry as long as the political environment is stable. Due to positive policies and passing of laws hat support economic growth such as Liberations of sky regulatory frameworks as well as tax policies and consumer policies assures an inspiring sign in the industry. Increased competition due to various market offers by different players in the industry. This requires Low cost airlines like Mango to be more innovative in order to retain as well as gain new clients for their services. A times when policies and aviation regulation become strict it entails airlines such as Mango Economizer to the wider economy and include economic growth rates, levels of employment and unemployment, cost of raw terrestrial such as energy, fuels and inputs for production, interest rates, monetary policies, exchange rates and inflation rates. Economic growth is a guaranty of more and more travels within the country and as well as international travels by both locals and foreigners. Exchange rates are in favor of the rand and low inflation meaning more disposable income results in income growth and high volumes of business for the airline industry. But, of late due to the economic downturn since 2008 this has had a negative impact on the industry. Low cost airlines such as Mango have to come up tit effective business strategies that ensure cost effectiveness in operation cost as well increase in price for the services they offer in order to maintain their customer relations as well as gain new ones. They can be affected by increase in fuel and energy prices meaning they have to find more cost effective energy sources as well as come up with cost effective flight schedules. Refer to the rate of new inventions and development, changes in information and mobile technology, changes in internet and e-commerce and government spending on research. Further involves development of materials, new methods of manufacture, distribution and logistics. Due to environmental awareness issues such as going green there is need the use of more environmentally friendly fuels and energies. Industry will ensure high cost in a bid to ensure this. Climate change results in unpredictable weather patterns which in turn causes a disruption in Flight scheduling. Airing like Mango have to look for alternative forms of natural resources that promote environmental preservation that are also cost effective. Eight schedules can be charted around a study of new weather patterns.

The Problems Encountered by DOH Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Problems Encountered by DOH - Essay Example The researcher states that not too long ago, DOH was compelled to subcontract a batch of work to another firm so that it could make it to new delivery deadlines. DOH’s managing director had a lot of fears and reservations regarding this move. His primary fear was the quality of subcontracted work. He felt that the quality of the work would suffer and it would be of an inferior standard. However, this fear was removed when no defects were found in the subcontracted batch. On the other hand, DOH‘s main customer is not happy with the services being offered and the quality of batches that are being delivered to him. He insists that any further quality failures in future because of defective parts would lead to strict penalty charges like a cost of labor etc involved in removing the part from the vehicle. This is a grave concern for the management of DOH. They do not want these fears to rise and turn into a general impression in the industry. The quality concerns have to be t aken care off with immediate effect or else DOH might lose out on a lot of key contracts and accounts with various customers. Hard problems are problems which can be quantified i.e. they can be measured whereas soft problems are those problems which cannot be measured. They are qualitative in nature. The hard problems that the company can monitor are the number of defected parts being sent per month, the amount of loss being incurred, which site is producing more defected batches of work and what is the difference in quality if a bigger quality assurance team is in place. On the other hand some of the soft problems that DOH is facing include the coordination between different teams, quality control instructions have not been clearly communicated to the workers, strict check on quality throughout the process instead of just a last minute audit. There are a lot of middle managers which has wrecked a lot of havoc in the hierarchy of the workforce. Secondly, there is little or no regard for teamwork.

Political World Leaders of World War II Research Paper

Political World Leaders of World War II - Research Paper Example The paper tells that both leaders have left significant different memories, one of which is the unforgettable holocaust initiated by Fuhrer Adolf Hitler and a successful giant leap of economic redemption of Singapore from a Third World country to become another Asian Tiger country within the three decades of Lee Kuan Yew’s rule. Each leader delivered significant changes that they now deserve to be called great icons in the history of world leaders. Adolf Hitler who was the reason for the outbreak of World War II and Lee Kuan Yew who transformed Singapore from a Third World country to another Asian Tiger country, have been chosen and juxtaposed to learn the similarities and contrasts of their qualities and styles as leaders as well as how their reigns brought impact to the world.   Credited to Hitler’s achievements were as follows: â€Å"awarded the Iron Cross, First Class in December 1914†; â€Å"annexation of Austria and Sudetenland†; wrote the book â⠂¬ËœMein Kampf’ where it was an anti-Semitic, anti-Communist diatribe outlining his strategy for remaking Germany and becoming a conquering power throughout Europe†. â€Å"By 1938 Hitler had made Germany the most powerful and feared country in Europe (and perhaps in the world)†. â€Å"Majority of the German people supported him because they saw during his early leadership to his credit how unemployment virtually disappeared, the rising prosperity of the masses, the new social institutions and the increase of German prestige in the 1930’s.’s. All these achievements of Hitler were unparalleled in the histories of other modern totalitarian dictatorship† (Hitler, A. 2011). On the other hand, achievements credited to Yew include: redemption of Singapore from a Third World Country to become an Asian Tiger country now aligned with other rich Asian countries like Japan, Hongkong, and Taiwan. Singapore is now an envy of many neighboring Asian countrie s. Of Lee Kuan Yew’s outstanding achievements in redeeming Singapore, eradication of corruption was best recognized and envied by many ASEAN nations because ‘Corruption’ has alwaysbeen considered a systemic problem commonly found and associated with Third World nations (underdeveloped countries) including most Asian countries. Other Yew’s achievements include the substantial â€Å"increase in the living standards (Loh,K. 2011)† in this country: â€Å"As Prime Minister, Lee Kuan Yew presided over an exponential increase in Singapore's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from US$704 million in 1960 to US$38 billion in 1990. This figure currently stands at US$222 billion, or over 300 times its level in 1960. Adjusting for cost of living differences, Singapore's GDP per capita was ranked 3rd

Men vs women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Men vs women - Essay Example Irrespective of their race, religion & class women were not seen as women in the society in the beginning of this century.The woman, often conceived and the childbirth have become dangerous. There was no birth control system in yester-years. They did not follow any contraceptive methods, as the same were not available or discovered. The system of divorce was so complexes and was not within the reach of the poor in yesteryears. The women were not encouraged to learn education. The abortion was treated as an unlawful thing.They did not follow any contraceptive methods, as the same were not available or discovered. The system of divorce was so complexes and was not within the reach of the poor in yesteryears.The women were not encouraged to learn education. The involvement of women workforce were a little below half of the British work force and that of women in USA, they were above half of workforce in recent days. During this century, the life styles of women have changed vastly. The activities of women have brought an important role in transformation of women. Many workingwomen have reached pinnacles in their selective fields. They have become champions in the fields of educational institutions, science and technology. Now the women are more economically stronger and independent than a century ago.The women are not involved in union activities.Now the women in UK & USA can exercise their franchise not like in olden days. Now the women are well educated and participated in national politics. The women were first employed in jobs during the currency of First World War. After the First World War, the services rendered by the woman were forgotten, as they did not enter into domestic service. The start of industries gave some opportunities to women to get good jobs with good returns. The involvement of women in second world war and the role played by them brought changes in awareness and consciousness within the women and the in the society too. The politicians thou ght of safeguarding the interests of women at their respective work place. The women desired to stick to their jobs by showing their individuality but some women wanted to come back to their domestic service. The work force of woman has largely increased in the year 1940 when compared to the work force of women in the year1939. After Second World War the need of education in higher education and technology has been increased for women after 1960, the entire world wanted to bring a change in inequality irrespective of their class, race and religion. The history of the women is the product of time of century old women. It is the growth of the women for the last 25 years, which focused on their memories, testimonies and pointing out women's experience. After events of revolution in 1968, the socialist feminism is possible once again the world, liberation of women in capitalism. At the end of 1960, the emergence of feminist framework and civil rights movement could be seen. In 1980s Thatcher and Reagan have elaborated the same. In both the countries of USA and Britain have contrasts of class, race, ethnicity, along with region, age and disability. The books did not carry a definite socialist analysis of the history of women in 20th centuries. The working class woman has not transformed the liberation of women forward. In 20th century, the women have achieved, in many nations, the right to vote, increased their changes in educational and job opportunities. Women used to feel wifehood and motherhood were most important events in the ir career. History shows that women is creative source of human life, women are always treated as inferior to men, since olden days. The attitude towards women was favorable in the east. In USA, the women were felt weaker than men as they couldn't do hard work which requires muscle power. In women, the Americans found lack of intellectual development. The women were allowed to attend domestic works such as caring of children, cooking cleaning of house and washing clothes. It was felt that women's main role in the society was to give birth to children. In the present scenario, because of major publicity to follow contraceptive methods control over number children besides legalisations

Effective Appraisal Methods Undertaken By Companies Commerce Essay

Effective Appraisal Methods Undertaken By Companies Commerce Essay With the increase of globalisation and new technologies of information and communication, businesses are facing more challenges than before. Furthermore, people are moving from their own country to relocate elsewhere. This give more difficulties to businesses to understand not only their customers, but also their workforces as they are coming from different part of the world and might have different way of thinking and acting. An organisation is a group of people working together in order to achieve the goals and objective that have been set. Therefore managing those people effectively and efficiency must be a company primary focus. This research is based on the type of performance appraisal that a company should be used in order to evaluate correctly its workforce. In order words, there are many different methods such as: 360 degree feedback systems, critical incidents, forced distribution, self-evaluation, essay evaluation, behavioural observation scales and management by objectives. These methods can be divided into two categories: past-oriented methods and future-oriented methods Statement of the problem Human Resource Management is the management of the human capital, workforce within an organisation. It has many functions which are: recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisals and employees promotion. M. Armstrong define it as: a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organisations most values assets- the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives (G. Armstrong, 2006, P.3). As people make an organisation, it is important for managers to deal with their personnel enquiries effectively. Evaluate or conducting performance appraisal on employee is also very important and it is one of Human Resource Management functions. There are no standard performance evaluation methods; companies chose the method that satisfies their needs and requirement. A method is chosen according the nature and the culture of the business. Also it is important to say that each method have both advantages and disadvantages and must be analysed carefully before taken into practice. Aims and objectives of the study In order to carry out properly, accurately and normally this research, it is crucial and important to point out it aims and objectives. The research aims are: The first objective of this research is to underline the importance of performance appraisal within an organization. Why Human Resource Managers conduct or evaluate their employees. What is the reason why employees should be evaluated after a certain period of time? What is the main purpose of employee evaluation? Is employee performance related to his/her pay? Or is it because the company just want to know who is performing very well and who is not? Also has the business notice that performance appraisal lead to a kind of motivation factor for its workforce? Because some employees would like to be rewarded whenever they think they are doing a good job. The second objective of this research is to find out which performance appraisal method is undertaken by PEABODY and why have they chosen that particular method Thirdly, it is also essential to notice that performance appraisal do not only matter for the organization but also influence employees. Therefore whenever a company evaluate their employees how do they do it? Which evaluation process to do take to appraise them? Are employees getting feedback on their performance? Finally, what strategy is used by human resource manager for employees with good and poor performance appraisal? LITERATURE REVIEW According to G. Dessler, performance appraisal can be defined as: the process of evaluating an employees current and/or past performance relative to his or her performance standards. (G. Dessler, 2008, P.336). In other words, performance appraisal helps the management to identify and evaluate their employees strengths and weaknesses. As result of conducting performance appraisal by an organization, managers will be able to adopt the best suitable motivation method. For example: if an employee feedback is positive, managers should motivate or reward him because they want him to keep having good performance in the future. M. Foot C. Hook added: Managers conduct performance appraisal for variety of reason such as: improve current performance, identify training needs, to award salary increases, to increase motivation [] (M. Foot C. Hook, 2005 P.268). It can also be seen as a motivation factors when employees have the feedback on their appraisal. Managers should take different strategies with employees who have poor performance. For example they can b e sent for training and development. But before doing so, the Human resource manager should identify the reason why they have poor performance. Figure 2 explains the steps and procedures to follow when dealing with poor performance. (S. Gilmore S. William, 2009, P.247). Performance appraisal is directly link with employees training and development because when it has been conducted that an employer might be able to identify whether if their employees have to go for a training program or not. Additionally, some employees are paid depending on their performance especially those who work in the marketing department. Therefore, the company must carry out performance appraisal after a certain period of time. (G. Dessler, 2008, P.339). Furthermore, for a company to achieve their goals and objectives, each and every worker in the organization should achieve their own target. DIFFERENT TYPE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL There many different types of performance appraisal such as 360 degree appraisal, forced distribution method, self-appraisal, rating scales method, critical incident method, ranking method, essay method and management by objective. 360-Degree Feedback Systems Armstrong stated: 360-degree feedback is also known as multi source assessment, is a process in which someones performance is assessed and feedback is given by number of people who may include their manager, subordinates, colleagues and customers (Armstrong, 2009, P.644). This assessment method is done by different persons in order to reduce or eliminate judgmental decision and bias. As an employee performance needs to be looked in a wider aspect, internal assessment done by managers only will not be as accurate as possible. This method is useful when appraising employees who work in call centres, receptionists and customer service. Where pass the majority of their working time dealing the customer enquiries. It is also a combination of different sources of performance appraisal information to create many different evaluator or 360-degree appraisal and feedback system. Jobs are multifaceted, and different people see different things. As the name implies, 360-Degree feedback is intended to provide employees with as accurate a view of their perf ormance. As all others methods of appraising workers performance, this method has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages 360-degree feedback has many advantages such as: firstly, it looks at the employee performance from different point of view. It includes collecting multiple perspective of managers performance by allowing employees to compare their own personal evaluation with others people point of view. (R. Noe et al, 2003, P.388). Secondly, Armstrong argued that it increases awareness by senior management that they too have development needs. Sometimes managers and board director believe that they know everything and therefore do not need to be appraised on their performance. (Armstrong, 2009, P.646). This frequently happens in organization where autocratic management style is adopted which stipule that managers are always right employees should always follow without any suggestions. Finally, feedback receive are more reliable and objective, therefore adequate actions can be undertaken. (Armstrong, 2009, P.646) Disadvantages According to Armstrong, people are not always honest and therefore wrong analysis can be made by managers. Also, people mind can change time to time. J. Ivancevich added that: providing constructive feedback require a plan and well-trained rater. And this is not typically found in organization. (J. Ivancevich, 2007, P.260). However some has strategies to make sure that 360 work as effectively as possible. For instance: to encourage participation in its customer performance appraisal process, Xerox business services plant a tree for each customer who return a completed form. (Jackson et al, 2009 P. 334). The introduction of 360-degree feedback in place where pre-evaluation had not been conducted can be very dangerous. For instance: in place where there is low level of trust and high level of competition. When conducting your 360-degree, customers might not give their real opinion about an employee performance. Furthermore, this can also lead to an increase in bias. If an employee is assessed by customers who are friends and/or family, t hey might rate the employee according to their personal feeling rather than the employees performance. Another disadvantage of 360-degree feedback is that, it does involve too much bureaucracy as everyone will be asked to assess the particular employee. Therefore this may require lots of time. Additionally, conducted performance appraisal is not enough but taking effective decision after having performance appraisal result is very important. Lack of feedback may de-motivate employees to take another one next time. Moreover, they need to know what are their strengths and weakness. This is the reason why some companies conduct self-assessment method of performance appraisal. Forced Distribution G. Dessler says: The forced distribution method is similar to grading on a curve; predetermined percentages of rates are placed in various performance categories. (G. Dessler, 2008, P.345). Most of the time, companies divide it into three where there is the first category w here companys best employees are placed, then the second category where the second best in located and finally the last category where usually poor performance is found.(Jackson et al, 2009 P. 335). Those who fall in the first group are encouraged continuing with great performance with some options available. Employees in the second group category are also encouraged to increase their potentiality in order to reach the top first group and can get some bonuses or promotion relative to their performance. But those in the group are not given any kind of bonuses. This is where the management will look at the various reasons why there is poor performance and may decide whether training needs to be undertaken or not. Some managers will give a warning if poor performance continues and others may even be harsher and fired. Jackson et al added: In this method, the appraiser distributes employees across several categories of performance following a set rule about the distribution of rating that are permitted. (Jackson et al, P. 335) Self-Appraisal Self-appraisal method is the form of performance appraisal technique where employees appraise their own performance. Before adopting this method, HR manager should make sure that their employees understand their objectives and the criteria used for evaluation. (Mondy, 2008, P.251). This method prone the fact that only the employee is able to know what he/she does well and what he/she is lacking and need to be improved. J. Beardwell and T. Claydon added: self-assessment is the only way to give a complete picture of the performance of the employees and to avoid a criticise-defend scenario (J. Beardwell T. Claydon, 2007, P.512). Furthermore, this method require the employee to have a good knowledge of the job requirement and role so that he/she will easily identify the gap between what he is doing and what he is require to do. METHODOLOGY In order to carry out the aim of this project, it is essential to build a very good research methodology. This will include the framework that will be used in order to answer the question. Knowing what the different types of performance appraisal are, research methodology will elaborate all the different methods that will be used to collect as much information as possible relating to the topic Research Methods The aim of the project is to find out what performance appraisal method should be undertaken by company to evaluate with effectiveness and accuracy their workforce, therefore qualitative and quantitative research will be useful to conduct the project efficiently. Quantitative research is mostly used when question beginning by how many are often used. Quantitative analysis deals with the numbers and uses mathematical operations to investigate the properties of data. (N. Walliman, 2006, P.113). As compared to qualitative research, quantitative researches develop technique that produce quantitative data and which can be classified easily. Qualitative research on the other hand is a method which leads to the collection of qualitative data which are data that cannot be quantified. Qualitative research usually answer question such as: what do think about? What is your opinion about one particular product? Qualitative research deals with feeling, attitudes, opinions and ideas. It is very difficult to analyse as people might change mind or opinion time to time. J. Creswell added by saying that: qualitative research begins with assumptions. A worldview, the possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research problem inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. (J. Creswell, 2007, P.37) Data collection The data will be collected using many sources of data collection. Secondary data collection such as: books, magazine, articles and academic journals will be used to gather much information as far as performance appraisal is concerned. Although secondary data are often books and journals, it is important to note that this source also entails non-written materials such as: voice and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films and television programmes. (M. Saunders et al, 2007, P.248). Any kind of secondary materials on performance appraisal and human resource management related to the research question will be used for the project. Primary data collection such as: questionnaire, interviews and observation will be adopted to collect information. Those data are not available on books and are more reliable than secondary data. In order to collect primary data, questionnaire will be designed and given to one HR manager and two assistant at PEABODY. The questionnaire will carry some useful questions such as: are you conducting performance appraisal on your employees? What is the importance of doing it? Which performance appraisal method have you used or are you using at the moment? What are the reasons why that method was chosen? After appraising your employees do you give them feedback on their performance? What step or strategy do you adopt with poor performance and good performance employees? Interviews will also be done to some workers in order to have an overall picture of the topic. Data analysis Data will be analysed by looking at the findings from all those different sources of data collection. Primary data analysis will be compared to the literature review in order to know if what is written in the books is followed by organisations. Findings might be presented as graph, diagrams or charts. GANTT CHART Time Activities April May June July 15th 30th 15th 30th 15th 30th 15th Introduction Literature review Research Methodology Primary Data collection Data analysis Conclusion

The Importance of Disaster Investigations for Systems Engineers :: Engineers Engineering Systems Essays

The Importance of Disaster Investigations for Systems Engineers - What is a Systems Engineer? In the modern industry engineering systems are becoming more complex by the day. Therefore a need for elite engineers i.e. the Systems Engineer, capable of applying a wide range of engineering disciplines to a variety of tasks from product design and development from requirements analysis to simulation to manufacturing and marketing etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is essential. Such engineers work within a team at the heart of the organisation where the design and development of a project is carried out. At this stage it is of great importance that every aspect of the design is studied accurately in order to ensure the final product works effectively, efficiently and safely. However, although maximum effort is made during the design, it is impossible to produce a result 100% efficient. This unfortunately leads to the occurrence of accidents and in some extreme cases to a disaster. By carrying out investigations into the disasters and their causation, lessons can be learnt and employed in future designs. This allows the team of engineers to improve the performance and efficiency of the system whilst maintaining the maximum safety levels. - Disasters and why they happened? - Air disasters caused due to faulty design: There have been historically countless cases of confusion in handling the flaps and the gear controls on the DC3 aircraft as they are in close proximity to each other and of similar shape. This is a problem that should have been addressed by the system engineers before the final go ahead for production was approved considering the importance of such instruments and their role during the flight of the aircraft. - Challenger disaster caused due to faulty design: This incident saw the destruction of the United States space shuttle Challenger 73 seconds after take-off from the Kennedy Space Centre on January 28, 1986 killing the entire shuttle crew. The disaster was caused by the failure of an "O-ring" seal in the solid-fuel rocket on the shuttle's right side. The seal's faulty design and the unusually cold weather, which affected the seal's proper functioning, allowed hot gases to leak through the joint. Flames from inside the booster rocket escaped through the failed seal and enlarged the small hole. The flames then burned through the shuttle's external fuel tank and cut away one of the supports that attached the booster to the side of the external tank. The booster broke loose and collided with the tank, piercing the tank's side. Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen fuels from the tank and booster mixed and ignited, causing the shuttle to tear apart. It is quite clear from this example that had the design of the ring